Below,
find my observations as I read Norton's selection of St. Thomas Aquinas
on Politics and Ethics. The topics discussed are entirely outside the
realm of my current expertise and so I reserve the right to falter, fail
and downright err in my attempts to assimilate and summarize the text.
You'll also no doubt note that my writing style is faulty and at times
illegible due to the complete lack of familiarity with the topic.
Parties wishing to correct my interpretation, grammar or content are
welcome to do so. Parties wishing to argue about the nuances of Thomist
theology should find a more worthy opponent with whom to test their
expertise.
St. Thomas Aquinas on Politics and Ethics
Norton Critical Editions
Life of St. Thomas - Timeline
1225 - Born near Naples
1244
- Joins to Dominican order but is imprisoned for a year by his family
as they are disappointed in his choice. They preferred he become a
Benedictine.
1259 - 1264 - Writes 'Summa Contra Gentiles'; an aid to help missionaries in their work to convert Muslims and Jews in Spain and North Africa.
1265 - Writes 'On Kingship' for the youthful new king of Cyprus
1266 - 1272 - Writes 'Summa Theologiae', an introduction to the Dominican theology for novice members
1274 - Died after striking his head on an overhanging tree branch
1323 - Canonized
Introduction
Saint
Thomas' primary contribution to history was to integrate the newly
discovered and seemingly contradictory teachings of Aristotle into the
theological teachings of his day. Because Aristotle's teachings ran
contrary to long-standing church teachings they were banned in 1215.
The ban was re-affirmed in 1231 but a few short years later the logic of
Aristotle's arguments was irresistible and by 1255 he had become
required reading.
Thomas'
use of the scholastic approach allowed complex philosophical problems
to be broken down via rational debate. Where previously issues of
governance and morals were resolved by attempts to extract answers
directly from interpretation of Biblical texts, with Thomas we see the
evolution of the use of natural law or reason as an extension of
Biblical teachings. The belief that man's natural reason is all part of
God's plan for the world is key to Thomas' work. "Grace does not
destroy nature, but completes it." he writes. The grace of God and the
knowledge of Jesus' sacrifice does not contradict our observations of
the world around us but instead caps it nicely by wrapping up the lose
ends that human reason is too feeble to resolve. Man can know some part
of God's divine plan by use of his intellect but can never know God
completely. Where knowledge ends faith must begin. For Thomas, reason
was simply another path to God, not one of self-deception as St.
Augustine argued.
Summa Contra Gentiles
In
Summa Contra Gentiles Thomas argues about the fundamental properties of
God and the universe. God, he argues, cannot be entirely understood by
application of human reason. Using the human senses to know God is
like knowing an object merely by the shape of it's shadow. One can
demonstrate logically that God exists, that God is one and eternal but
the deeper mysteries of God, such as the fact that he is simultaneously 1
and yet also 3, are impenetrable to logic. Though it is possible to
know something of God by argument alone, few men do so. Most are
distracted by earthly concerns, not mentally capable of the pursuit or
merely too lazy. But the knowledge is there for anyone who seeks it;
reasoning and logic, derived as they are from God himself, will never
contradict faith and truth. It cannot be emphasized enough, however,
that no matter how diligently we may seek or reason, the final step to
knowing God must be an act of faith. Reason alone will not give us all
the answers.
Thomas
goes on to compare humans' relationship with the divine to an oyster's
relationship to a plant. The oyster represents the very lowest of the
animal forms and as such is only slightly separated from a plant. In
the same way, humans, supreme among the animals, are only slightly
separated from the angels above them in the great 'Chain of Being.'
Man, as ruler of the animals has only his soul to separate him from his
baser counterparts. While all animals outstrip man in some manner (some
are faster, stronger, better hunters) man dominates them all in that he
has a soul and can partake of the ultimate happiness, the contemplation
of God. While communion with God is the greatest joy possible to
mankind this is never without an accompaniment of sorrow or
distraction. No man is without suffering until he reaches his ultimate
reward. The soul needs the human flesh to help it derive knowledge from
the substance of the world around it but this flesh comes with a price,
constant suffering while man lives on Earth. Only the divine light of
God can teach the soul directly without the need for a human form.
All
the acts of man, no matter how base-seeming, come about as the
fulfillment of natural appetite. Since nature tends always towards the
good and optimal all acts are good though that good may be of a strictly
local nature. If a man should kill another man, it would be for the
benefit of himself. Whether this should benefit society in general is
another argument altogether but in the context of murderer alone the act
is a good one. Similarly, all intellectual acts bring us closer to
God. No matter what we seek the only truth in the universe is God
himself and when we approach truth by any path we approach God. If we
should derive pleasure from any act we commit it should be noted that
this is merely a byproduct and not the goal to be achieved. Pleasure is
never an end in and of itself but instead merely a sensation that
signals that we have completed some more important goal.
On Kingship
On Kingship
illuminates Thomas' views on the best manner of government. This text
was started for the King of Cyprus in 1265 but Thomas did not, in fact,
ever finish this work as the young King was killed not long after it was
started. Another writer completed the text afterwards. Thomas argues
emphatically that the best form of government is a Monarchy. A single
ruler, he says, is not burdened with differing viewpoints. A benevolent
monarch can move quickly to serve the needs of his people without the
need to consult anyone else. While private concerns of the citizens
work to divide the community the king's role is to guide the people to
focus on the public goals that bind them together. It is this act of
uniting his people in peace that is the ruler's first and most important
responsibility. Because this is the first goal, it can obviously be
done most efficiently by only one man. No appearance of dissent is
possible if all the decisions stem from a single individual. Nature
also demonstrates to the superiority of a single leader. Thomas points
out that the body is ruled by a single organ, the brain. The universe
is ruled by a single God and even bees are guided by a single 'king' bee
as he refers to it. Lastly, a government ruled by many, no matter how
seemingly benevolent, is more likely to devolve into tyranny. If a
group rules then it becomes increasingly likely that at least one of
them is corrupt and thirsts for more power and may overthrow the
others.
While
a king is the best form of government a tyrant is the worst. As the
king works for the benefit of the ruled the tyrant works only for the
benefit of himself. A tyrannical monarch is worse than any form of
government in which many rule since he works in the interest of only
himself while a oligarchy at least works for the benefit of a select
handful of people. A tyrant also drives the virtuous from his kingdom.
Any who excel in a society ruled by tyranny represent a threat to the
status quo and are quickly forced to either leave or act against the
king. Men will still labor to support a just king but a tyrant brings
out the best in no one around him.
A
relatively benign tyrant can be better than a particularly oppressive
oligarchy, Thomas concludes. A tyrant only steals for his own benefit
but an oligarchy may go so far as to spur a war or in the best case
steal for the needs of many more individuals. Once established, a
tyrant should not be removed except by the united rebellion of those he
rules. It is thought by many that simply assassinating the despot will
resolve the government's problems but often is it found that another
even worse tyrant simply replaces the first. Since this new ruler is
keenly aware of the delicate position he holds his reign will be even
more oppressive. If the ruled cannot unite strongly enough to depose
their ruler then their only valid course is to appeal to God himself.
It is better to suffer an unjust ruler than to act unjustly in deposing
him as God sometimes uses such rulers to punish the sinful.
A
king who wishes to be just should model his rule after that of God over
the universe. Rulers should consider their subjects like parts of
their own body and treat them with the same respect. The ultimate goal
of the government is to support the people in their own goals: to live
virtuous lives and enjoy the divine knowledge of God. The government
should recognize the supremacy of the church in all matters since it is
the Church which is the best guide of virtue and Godliness.
Summa Theologiae Part 1
In
the Summa Theologiae, Thomas takes on some of the stickier theological
questions of his day. The format for these answers takes the form of a
debate in which the question is posed, objections are raised and then
Thomas puts forth his proof. I will boil down these proofs to their key
points below.
Does God Exist?
Objections:
God cannot exist because a true God would not allow evil to exist in
the world. Besides, everything that takes place in nature can as easily
be explained without God.
God's existence can be proven in 5 days:
- Objects
on the Earth and outside it move from the stars to the wind. In order
for these things to move there must be someone to move them. This is
most assuredly the work of God.
- The
universe operates on the principle of cause and effect. Everything we
see around us has some cause but there is no effect without a cause.
This first cause which is required for anything to exist is God.
- Objects
in the world either exist or they do not. Objects come into being
because of other preexisting objects therefore there must be some
initial object to have created all others. Again, this first object is
God.
- To
all properties in the universe there is a greatest superlative
example. God exist to represent the greatest possible example of
'goodness' and benevolence in the universe.
- Nature
operates in the optimal way possible for the survival of animals and
plants. Just as for the arrow in flight there must be an archer to
guide it, so also in order for nature to behave in a rational manner
there must be some God to dictate this behavior.
Responds
to Objections: God is so utterly powerful that he allows evil to exist
so that he may turn it to good. Further, all the acts of God seem
rational and explained by other means exactly because God dictates that
they behave in a reasonable fashion.
Can we know God in this lifetime by use of reason alone and is it better to know God by reason or by Grace?
Man
can learn to know God by the use of his reason but the results will be
hollow when compared with that gained by God's grace. The pursuit of
God by logic is prone to error since man's reason is subject to the
frailty of his senses while God's grace instructs the soul directly.
Does God love all things?
God
does love all things and everything is good in God's eyes. God's very
love for things makes them good while man's love is contingent on the
belief that they are good.
Is the soul a material object? Is the human soul corruptible?
The soul is incorporeal and as such is not corruptible
Should woman have been made in the Original Creation?
Objections:
A woman is basically just a defective man so she shouldn't have been
made in the first place. This is obvious because she is subject to the
rule of the man and this is an indication that she has sinned and is
being punished for it.
Woman
was made as a "helpmate" to man. Not for helping in the fields but as
an aid to procreation. Animals in nature reproduce in the same way and
while the woman is concentrating on bringing new life into the world the
man can be focused on the first goal of mankind: communion with God.
Responses
to Objections: Woman is somewhat defective in her nature but that's
what God made her to be. Her duty is to create children and this was as
God intended therefore it is good. Also, woman is subject to the rule
of man but that's only because man is more endowed with intelligence
than woman so it's for her own good that this is so.
If the 'Fall' had never happened, would we still need Kings to lord over us? Would we still have sex?
Man
is a social animal so regardless of the circumstances he will require
the company of others. Whenever men congregate there will be some who
are more intelligent or stronger than others so even if man had never
fallen from grace, we would still need leaders to direct the actions of
the community. As to sex, male and female were made before the fall so
sexual intercourse would still exist. It would be different however in
that it would not be tainted by lust. This is not to say that it would
be less pleasant however. A moderate man who eats only what he needs
enjoys his meal no less than a glutton.
Are there different orders within the hierarchy of angels?
Yes, angels are broken into orders by their function and into three levels: highest, middle, and lowest.
Summa Theologiae Part 2a
In
part 2 of the Summa St Thomas pursues a few more questions but for
brevity I will reduce the findings to a more comopact form and dispense
with the Question and Answer format.
The
only happiness that can be found in this life is merely transitory.
Man is never truly happy as long as there is more to do and more to find
out about and in this life we cannot possibly hope to exclude all
suffering and evil. It is only by achieving his primary goal, to know
God, that man can achieve happiness. God in his wisdom and mercy gives
us tools added to our natural intellect to help us attain this final
happiness, they are the theological virtues: faith, hope and charity.
It is by exercising these virtues that man can eventually become truly
happy.
Just
as you would not blame the hand alone for a murder it carried out, so
too can one man alone not be blamed for his sins. The body of mankind
as a whole is tainted and this is the nature of original sin.
Law
is the rule or measure of action or restraint in a man and the first
law of all is that of human reason. A law is said to be good if it is
oriented towards the common good. To be effective a law requires
consensus among the ruled and must be widely known. Effective law also
requires that the ruler has the power of compulsion in cases where the
law is disobeyed. Unjust law is contrary to divine goodness and should
be considered no law at all. There are four types of law:
Eternal
law is the law by which God governs the universe, the divine wisdom by
which all things are ultimately ruled. Eternal law is a constituent in
all other laws.
Natural
Law represents the manner in which man behaves according to the Eternal
Law. These laws are the same for all men but are unknown or unfollowed
by some. They are also prone to exceptions since they can be changed
or exceptions made depending on the situation or the will of God.
Natural Laws fall into three basic categories: those laws which preserve
life (prohibitions on murder, suicide), that knowledge shared in common
with the animals (sex, education of children), knowledge of how we can
become closer to God.
Divine
Law is the word of God given to us in the form of Scripture. Divine
law serves four purposes. First, to aid man to reach beyond the Natural
law towards his own salvation. Secondly, to correct human laws where
they may err. Third, to judge those things which cannot be judged by
man's sense of the world around him. Lastly, to tie up any loose ends
that are unenforceable in the course of a normal human lifetime (such as
punishing suicides who would otherwise be beyond the reach of civil
authority).
Finally,
Human law is constructed by man and derived from Natural Laws as an aid
to the young and the weak who might not otherwise observe those laws.
The purpose of human laws is not to suppress all human vice, this would
be impossible to enforce. Rather, those infractions which would
diminish the social order are focused on. Even those who are outside
the enforceable realm of human law are subject to it as God will sit in
judgment of even Kings who violate it. Over time, Human Law evolves and
exceptions are made but changes should only happen with the support of
the ruled and in cases when the risk of changing a long-held belief is
small compared to the benefit derived from the change. In many cases,
local custom has the force of law even when it is not formally
codified. The best way to administer Human Law is through a single
ruler and a council of elders much like Moses and the council of 72
elders. Human Laws fall into two basic categories. Firstly, those laws
which are common to all nations and from which there is no
dispensation. These laws are derived directly from the Natural Laws.
Secondly, laws which are derived less directly from the Natural Laws
merely for the convenience of the of the community.
Most
importantly, it should be noted that no system of laws, no matter how
constructed or how closely adhered to can make a man truly good. Only
the Grace of God can bring man to the level of true goodness.
Summa Theologiae Part 2b
Those
who never believed in the salvation offered by Jesus Christ (primarily
the Jews and the Muslims) should should not be physically compelled to
believe since this would not actually do any good anyway. Heretics,
apostates, and any others who stand in the way of the faith can be
removed by any means necessary as these threaten the viability of the
faith. The faithful should also not associate with unbelievers,
especially those weak in faith. Others may associate with them only if
there is hope of conversion and the rituals of unbelievers are not to be
tolerated unless that tolerance directly serves to advance the cause of
conversion. Further, the children of unbelievers are not to be
baptized against the will of the parents until such time as they reach
the age of reason. In extreme cases, heretics may be killed but only
after being given the chance to renounce their heretical views.
War
is not in and of itself a sin. If waged for a just cause and in a just
manner war is an acceptable means of advancing the cause of the faith
or removing an tyrannical ruler. In all cases of violence, however, the
benefit must be weighed against the costs of the disruption to the
common peace. Similarly, it is just to murder a criminal if that murder
benefits the public good but this must be undertaken by the ruler of a
community and not by its private citizens. Killing in self defense is
not considered murder as long as it is proportionate to the risk of
doing nothing. In such cases, the intent of the killer is paramount.
If the intent was to murder then so should the action be adjudged. In
the same way accidental killing is not considered murder except in the
case where gross negligence caused the death. In that case, regardless
of intent, the ruling shall be that of murder. Finally, in the case of
the death of an infant before it's birth, it shall be considered murder
if the pregnancy is more than 40 days old (in the case of a male) or 80
days old (in the case of a female).
Suicide
is a mortal sin for three reasons. Firstly, the act of suicide is
contrary to the natural law of self preservation. Secondly, the
destruction of a member of a community is harmful to that community so
the act is also one against the common good. Lastly, suicide is an
infringement on the sole jurisdiction of life and death that belongs to
God.
It
is within man's natural rights to own objects as his own private
property. In this way he is best able to care for those objects as he
has a sense of ownership and pride. However, with that ownership comes
the responsibility to share that objects in a time of need. A man may
rightly steal if he is in dire need so the right of ownership is
secondary to that of necessity. A man may also sell his objects for a
profit without fear of committing a sin but it is a sin against nature
to charge interest on the use of money itself since nothing is bought or
sold in the transaction.
It
is natural that inferiors obey their superiors in life but a slave may
never be commanded in contradiction to orders given by a greater
superior (ie, God). A superior can also not command outside the realm
of his dominion. Specifically, a master may command the body but the
mind is beyond his reach. It should also be noted that faith in Christ
does not release us from our duty to secular authority.
In
no case is lying acceptable even in cases where a another sin may be
averted by use of a falsehood. Instead, it is recommend that one simply
avoid giving a direct response.
The
act of drinking is not a mortal sin unless the intention is to actually
become drunk. Drinking to drunkenness deprives man of his natural
reason which directs him to act virtuously.
Virginity,
although contrary to the natural law of procreation, is not a sin if it
is done so as to free one for more time to contemplate the divine. The
opposite extreme, that of promiscuity, however, is a mortal sin as it
works against the proper rearing of children. The mere act of kissing
and embracing is merely a venial sin but those of masturbation,
bestiality, sodomy and 'sex using the wrong organs' is against nature
and constitute mortal sins.
Summa Theologiae Part 3
Christ is the head of all mankind though in differing degrees:
1. Christ is head of those united to him in heaven
2. Christ is head of those united to him in love (those not currently in a state of mortal sin)
3. Christ is head of those united to him in faith
4. Christ is head of those who have not yet united with him but who are predestined to before their deaths.
5. Christ is head of those who will never be united with him and who will separate from him utterly upon their deaths.
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